People make attributions about themselves and other people’s behavior all the time. Attributions are inferences people use to explain their own behavior or the behavior of others during an event. The attribution causes people to see the behavior rather than assume that the behavior is random. It allows people a feeling of some control over their own behavior and situations. Attributions are strongly influenced by the way people interact with each other.
Attribution theory was first addressed by Heider in 1958. He stated that what people perceive and believe about what they see dictates how they act; even when beliefs are invalid. The attribution process is a dichotomy that involves determining internal versus external cause for an event or behavior. The internal attribution is dispositional coming from within the person. The external attribution is situational coming from the environment that surrounds the person.
When an event occurs a person observes the behavior. Then they determine if the behavior is deliberate and then attributes the behavior to internal or external causes. An internal attribution is the blaming factor, agent or the force that someone controls for causing an event. Behavior is caused by personal factors such as traits, abilities or feelings. It can be contributed to disposition, a person’s ability or effort put forth. An external attribution is that the behavior is caused by the situation that surrounds the person. .
Attributions are made based on three criteria; consensus, distinctiveness and consistency. Consensus would be if others react to a certain situation the same. Distinctiveness would be does the behavior happen the same each time. Consistency would be does the behavior occur in similar situations. For example if Sarah is getting yelled at by her boss the consensus would be; do other people frequently yell at her too? Distinctiveness information would be does the boss yell at other employees, as well, or just at Sarah? Consistency information would be does the boss yell at Sarah frequently?
Attribution is also considering the situation that surrounds the person. In western culture most people don’t make it to this step. Western culture frequently does the fundamental attribution error which means that people overestimate dispositional and underestimate situational causes for behavior. They feel that behavior is caused by the person, not the situation. This step requires more effort and more conscious attention. It helps people to slow down before making a judgment. They don’t assess the situation that surrounds the person to see if the environment is contributing to the person’s behavior. For example, if Donna is nasty towards her husband most people would just assume that she is grumpy. But some situational factors that may have contributed to Donna’s mood are maybe she didn’t get enough sleep last night or maybe she is just stressed at work.
Monday, February 13, 2012
Saturday, February 4, 2012
Schemas
Schemas are a form of automatic thinking that people use to help them interpret people, places, objects, and situations based on their prior experiences. A schema consists of mental frameworks that help them organize their social world. It is influenced by the information that people notice, think about or remember. People use schemas everyday to help them quickly interpret a situation, organize the perceptions and help make a choice of how to act efficiently without effort. The accessibility of the schema often influences the social interpretation. The accessibility can be drawn from a chronic, current or recent experience schema.
Heuristics are a type of schema that is commonly used. Heuristics are how people come to make decisions, make judgments and to solve problems. There is judgmental, representative and availability heuristics. If a person has too many schemas already developed that seems to fit a given situation they will use judgmental heuristics. Many times the use of such a shortcut is not accurate.
The representation heuristic is a mental shortcut to clarify something according to how similar it’s to a typical case. The representation heuristic would be used if a person wanted to identify where someone is from. People may interpret a situation differently based on prior experience. For example if you meet a person who loves the cold and likes to ski you might think that they live in a cold state like New York.
The availability heuristic is the frequency of an event based on how easily something comes to mind. For example if the news shows a story about people being raped people are more likely to think about being raped when walking alone at night and will be more cautious. By recently heightening a person’s awareness of such an issue it could be helpful where someone needs to be more careful.
Stereotyping is another shortcut people use when considering ideas about a race or gender. Stereotypes can be good or bad. Many times it can cause people to interpret situations incorrectly. A positive stereotype could be that Asians are good at math or blacks are good dancers and a negative stereotype could be that all Muslims are terrorists. Obviously these stereotypes are not necessarily true or accurate. There are gender stereotypes as well. Men are depicted as being strong and adventurous while women are depicted as being great cooks and like to take care of their appearances. Stereotyping could be helpful in a situation where making snap judgments about someone could help a person make a quick decision but a person needs to keep in mind that margin of error can be high.
Heuristics are a type of schema that is commonly used. Heuristics are how people come to make decisions, make judgments and to solve problems. There is judgmental, representative and availability heuristics. If a person has too many schemas already developed that seems to fit a given situation they will use judgmental heuristics. Many times the use of such a shortcut is not accurate.
The representation heuristic is a mental shortcut to clarify something according to how similar it’s to a typical case. The representation heuristic would be used if a person wanted to identify where someone is from. People may interpret a situation differently based on prior experience. For example if you meet a person who loves the cold and likes to ski you might think that they live in a cold state like New York.
The availability heuristic is the frequency of an event based on how easily something comes to mind. For example if the news shows a story about people being raped people are more likely to think about being raped when walking alone at night and will be more cautious. By recently heightening a person’s awareness of such an issue it could be helpful where someone needs to be more careful.
Stereotyping is another shortcut people use when considering ideas about a race or gender. Stereotypes can be good or bad. Many times it can cause people to interpret situations incorrectly. A positive stereotype could be that Asians are good at math or blacks are good dancers and a negative stereotype could be that all Muslims are terrorists. Obviously these stereotypes are not necessarily true or accurate. There are gender stereotypes as well. Men are depicted as being strong and adventurous while women are depicted as being great cooks and like to take care of their appearances. Stereotyping could be helpful in a situation where making snap judgments about someone could help a person make a quick decision but a person needs to keep in mind that margin of error can be high.
Automatic Thinking
Schemas are preconceived ideas about people, places, objects or situations that quickly organize perceptions to act socially efficient without effort. People use schemas everyday.
Heuristics are a type of schema that is commonly used. Heuristics are how people come to make decisions, make judgments and to solve problems. If there is too much information the person may use judgmental heuristics. The representation heuristic is a mental shortcut to clarify something according of how similar it’s to a typical case. The availability heuristic is the frequency of an event based on how easily something comes to mind.
One advantage of heuristics is problem solving. It helps to simplify a complex problem and reduce the number of possible solutions into a manageable set. An advantage of the availability heuristic is that it helps in memory retrieval.
Stereotyping is another schema that can be used. Stereotyping is holding ideas about a certain group of people. This may cause people to interpret situations incorrectly. Stereotypes can be good or bad. A disadvantage of stereotyping is that they suggest that people are prone to certain behaviors. Social factors have contributed to this phenomenon. Another con to stereotyping is prejudice. This causes people to judge a person before even meeting them. The sayings don’t judge a book by its cover is an example that proves that appearances are not the only way to understand who a person really is. Stereotyping can make people ignore the differences between individuals and think things about people that may not be true. Stereotyping can prevent new friendships from building because of certain preconceived notions about them. Stereotyping can have an impact on the individual’s identity in a certain group. If a child learns that their nationality is labeled as lazy they might start to believe that they are lazy. Stereotyping can cause discrimination. For example a person is charged with a crime based on their gender and the color of their skin. Stereotyping can also cause hate crimes. If people feel negatively and strongly toward a certain group they may be more incline to harm people of that certain group.
An advantage of stereotyping is that it enables people to respond rapidly to situations especially if they have experienced them before. Stereotyping does simplify people’s social world when they meet new people. This helps people to put people into manageable boxes to form expectations about people and make situations more predictable and easier to understand.
Automatic thinking is thoughts that happen automatically in a given situation. It is automatic because people don’t create them and they are based on beliefs people have about themselves and the world that they live in. Automatic thoughts create feelings and behavior. For example when a person pulls out in front of you automatically you think that was rude and dangerous. One disadvantage of automatic thinking is loss in a person’s abilities. For example if Ken always gets bad grades on his math tests he might think that he’s a terrible math student. Then he may not take the necessary steps to correct the situation. Another bad thing about automatic thoughts is assuming that a person has a certain opinion about us. For example if someone corrects our mistake in a conversation we might think they think that we are dumb. But in reality they may not think that at all they maybe are only attempting to express accuracy.
People can be very critical about themselves really more than other people are towards them. Self criticism can be a form of emotional reasoning. For example Ted is going to give a speech to a group of people. When he goes up to the podium he is nervous. He thinks I am not very prepared for this speech even though he has put a lot of time into it.
Shouldering is when someone criticizes themselves by concentrating on things that they should be doing instead of what they actually are doing. For example if they are attempting to take a nap, they can’t take the nap because all they can think about is that they should clean the house or be making lunch. Automatic thinking can cause blaming. If Megan’s boyfriend breaks up with her because he moves away she might think he broke up with her because she is ugly and stupid when it really has nothing to do with that.
One advantage of automatic thoughts would be to access what is going on and to make a snap judgment based on information at hand. This could be used in a situation where the use of automatic thoughts is desired like in crisis situations.
Heuristics are a type of schema that is commonly used. Heuristics are how people come to make decisions, make judgments and to solve problems. If there is too much information the person may use judgmental heuristics. The representation heuristic is a mental shortcut to clarify something according of how similar it’s to a typical case. The availability heuristic is the frequency of an event based on how easily something comes to mind.
One advantage of heuristics is problem solving. It helps to simplify a complex problem and reduce the number of possible solutions into a manageable set. An advantage of the availability heuristic is that it helps in memory retrieval.
Stereotyping is another schema that can be used. Stereotyping is holding ideas about a certain group of people. This may cause people to interpret situations incorrectly. Stereotypes can be good or bad. A disadvantage of stereotyping is that they suggest that people are prone to certain behaviors. Social factors have contributed to this phenomenon. Another con to stereotyping is prejudice. This causes people to judge a person before even meeting them. The sayings don’t judge a book by its cover is an example that proves that appearances are not the only way to understand who a person really is. Stereotyping can make people ignore the differences between individuals and think things about people that may not be true. Stereotyping can prevent new friendships from building because of certain preconceived notions about them. Stereotyping can have an impact on the individual’s identity in a certain group. If a child learns that their nationality is labeled as lazy they might start to believe that they are lazy. Stereotyping can cause discrimination. For example a person is charged with a crime based on their gender and the color of their skin. Stereotyping can also cause hate crimes. If people feel negatively and strongly toward a certain group they may be more incline to harm people of that certain group.
An advantage of stereotyping is that it enables people to respond rapidly to situations especially if they have experienced them before. Stereotyping does simplify people’s social world when they meet new people. This helps people to put people into manageable boxes to form expectations about people and make situations more predictable and easier to understand.
Automatic thinking is thoughts that happen automatically in a given situation. It is automatic because people don’t create them and they are based on beliefs people have about themselves and the world that they live in. Automatic thoughts create feelings and behavior. For example when a person pulls out in front of you automatically you think that was rude and dangerous. One disadvantage of automatic thinking is loss in a person’s abilities. For example if Ken always gets bad grades on his math tests he might think that he’s a terrible math student. Then he may not take the necessary steps to correct the situation. Another bad thing about automatic thoughts is assuming that a person has a certain opinion about us. For example if someone corrects our mistake in a conversation we might think they think that we are dumb. But in reality they may not think that at all they maybe are only attempting to express accuracy.
People can be very critical about themselves really more than other people are towards them. Self criticism can be a form of emotional reasoning. For example Ted is going to give a speech to a group of people. When he goes up to the podium he is nervous. He thinks I am not very prepared for this speech even though he has put a lot of time into it.
Shouldering is when someone criticizes themselves by concentrating on things that they should be doing instead of what they actually are doing. For example if they are attempting to take a nap, they can’t take the nap because all they can think about is that they should clean the house or be making lunch. Automatic thinking can cause blaming. If Megan’s boyfriend breaks up with her because he moves away she might think he broke up with her because she is ugly and stupid when it really has nothing to do with that.
One advantage of automatic thoughts would be to access what is going on and to make a snap judgment based on information at hand. This could be used in a situation where the use of automatic thoughts is desired like in crisis situations.
Chapter 12 Connection Task
Discussion questions
1) The Grand Duchess was the widow of the Grand Duke. The Grand Duke had appointed Galileo to a professorship of mathematics at the University of Paris in 1588. The Duchess had questions about the interpretations of the Bible by the church versus the scientific stance of Galileo. She hosted a dinner where she asked a monk about the church’s interpretation of the theory of geocentrism versus heliocentism. Consequently Galileo wrote a letter in 1615 to the Grand Duchess to support his application of the Copernican theory as not just a math calculating tool, but a physical reality. He wrote the letter to show the relationship between the Bible and the new science. His letter was suppressed by the church and not released until some time later. Galileo was warned by the pope the following year to abandon his ideas and he was eventually taken to trial by the church.
2) Galileo was the first to use the telescope but he didn’t create it. He took the original invention made by Augustine in 1608 from the Netherlands and increased its effectiveness by magnifying its ability. By doing this he was able to see many more parts of the universe. He then proposed the theory of heliocentric which is that the earth and the planets rotate around the sun. The popular theory before his proposal was geocentrism which is where the earth is the center and the sun rotates around it. There was a debate between the Roman Catholic Church and Galileo because the church supported the verses in the Bible about nature and its reference to heavenly bodies. The verses of Psalms 93:1 and 96:10, and 104:5, 1 Chronicles 16:30 and Ecclesiastes 1:5 talks about the motion of celestial bodies and the suspended position of the earth. He was warned to abandon his ideas of the sun being the center of the universe by the pope in 1616. He continued to support his findings and a trial for Galileo was scheduled in 1633 stating that he was on suspicion of heresy. At the trial there were three major findings. Galileo was guilty of heresy, continue imprisonment, and all of his dialogue and writings were banned. He was placed under house arrest from 1634 until his death in 1642. He also wrote a book of poetry and song and this was banned as well. Galileo’s critics were not silenced until 1718 when his writings were then supported and released.
3) Galileo stated in a letter he wrote to the Grand Duchess, “Who, then, would positively declare that this principle should be set aside and the Bible has confined itself rigorously to the bane and restricted sense of its words, when speaking but casually about the earth, of water, of the sun, or of any other creatured thing? Especially in the view of the fact that these things in no way concern the primary purpose of the sacred writings, which is the service of God and the salvation of souls-matters indefinitely beyond the comprehension of the common people” (Lualdi p 33). Galileo agreed that the Bible does mention the sun but the Bible was not intended for how things work but to save souls. He also states “That the intention of the Holy Ghost is to teach us how one goes to heaven, not how heaven goes” (Lualdi p 34). Galileo stated that the Bible is not a science book, but a book written by non-scientific men of verses and rhyme meant for guidance of mankind. Therefore his conclusion was that science really has nothing to do with the Bible.
4) The letter that Galileo wrote to the Grand Duchess clearly spells out his scientific theory versus the unfounded theories of the church related to the rotation of the heavenly bodies. Because of this letter original documentation from Galileo’s own hand is recorded in history to give all subsequent scientists that came after him proof of his theory.
I have always admired Galileo because of his discovery of the heliocentric model. Even though Galileo didn’t invent the telescope he did build his own version of the first three lens telescope that was able to look into the sky to see planets, stars and moons. Telescopes were invented in the 1600’s. Comparing our knowledge of today and technology it is so remarkable that Galileo was so smart and talented and inquisitive to calculate, observe and record his findings. I also admire him because he ‘stuck by his gun’ with his proposed theory. He took a lot of heat and flax for his theory. The irony I find in the whole story of Galileo is that HE WAS RIGHT. It goes to show that he was way ahead of his time and should give all of us pause when new discoveries and theories are proposed even today. We need to have open and inquisitive minds for the truth like Galileo, not narrow minded stereotypical viewpoints that close down possibilities. Many new discoveries are occurring everyday in our scientifically based community. I don’t fear the new discoveries, such as cloning, I just fear the way in which man uses his knowledge. This is not any different today as it was from the olden days. If man maintains a moral code with his discoveries than these new discoveries could possibly really benefit mankind. Before Galileo‘s discovery people thought that the Earth was inside a sphere and the stars were holes to let the heavens in. After Galileo’s time scientists started to build bigger and better telescopes. The bigger it is the more universes you can see. Galileo’s use of the telescope is a representation of the principle of growth for mankind being approached in a constructive manner.
1) The Grand Duchess was the widow of the Grand Duke. The Grand Duke had appointed Galileo to a professorship of mathematics at the University of Paris in 1588. The Duchess had questions about the interpretations of the Bible by the church versus the scientific stance of Galileo. She hosted a dinner where she asked a monk about the church’s interpretation of the theory of geocentrism versus heliocentism. Consequently Galileo wrote a letter in 1615 to the Grand Duchess to support his application of the Copernican theory as not just a math calculating tool, but a physical reality. He wrote the letter to show the relationship between the Bible and the new science. His letter was suppressed by the church and not released until some time later. Galileo was warned by the pope the following year to abandon his ideas and he was eventually taken to trial by the church.
2) Galileo was the first to use the telescope but he didn’t create it. He took the original invention made by Augustine in 1608 from the Netherlands and increased its effectiveness by magnifying its ability. By doing this he was able to see many more parts of the universe. He then proposed the theory of heliocentric which is that the earth and the planets rotate around the sun. The popular theory before his proposal was geocentrism which is where the earth is the center and the sun rotates around it. There was a debate between the Roman Catholic Church and Galileo because the church supported the verses in the Bible about nature and its reference to heavenly bodies. The verses of Psalms 93:1 and 96:10, and 104:5, 1 Chronicles 16:30 and Ecclesiastes 1:5 talks about the motion of celestial bodies and the suspended position of the earth. He was warned to abandon his ideas of the sun being the center of the universe by the pope in 1616. He continued to support his findings and a trial for Galileo was scheduled in 1633 stating that he was on suspicion of heresy. At the trial there were three major findings. Galileo was guilty of heresy, continue imprisonment, and all of his dialogue and writings were banned. He was placed under house arrest from 1634 until his death in 1642. He also wrote a book of poetry and song and this was banned as well. Galileo’s critics were not silenced until 1718 when his writings were then supported and released.
3) Galileo stated in a letter he wrote to the Grand Duchess, “Who, then, would positively declare that this principle should be set aside and the Bible has confined itself rigorously to the bane and restricted sense of its words, when speaking but casually about the earth, of water, of the sun, or of any other creatured thing? Especially in the view of the fact that these things in no way concern the primary purpose of the sacred writings, which is the service of God and the salvation of souls-matters indefinitely beyond the comprehension of the common people” (Lualdi p 33). Galileo agreed that the Bible does mention the sun but the Bible was not intended for how things work but to save souls. He also states “That the intention of the Holy Ghost is to teach us how one goes to heaven, not how heaven goes” (Lualdi p 34). Galileo stated that the Bible is not a science book, but a book written by non-scientific men of verses and rhyme meant for guidance of mankind. Therefore his conclusion was that science really has nothing to do with the Bible.
4) The letter that Galileo wrote to the Grand Duchess clearly spells out his scientific theory versus the unfounded theories of the church related to the rotation of the heavenly bodies. Because of this letter original documentation from Galileo’s own hand is recorded in history to give all subsequent scientists that came after him proof of his theory.
I have always admired Galileo because of his discovery of the heliocentric model. Even though Galileo didn’t invent the telescope he did build his own version of the first three lens telescope that was able to look into the sky to see planets, stars and moons. Telescopes were invented in the 1600’s. Comparing our knowledge of today and technology it is so remarkable that Galileo was so smart and talented and inquisitive to calculate, observe and record his findings. I also admire him because he ‘stuck by his gun’ with his proposed theory. He took a lot of heat and flax for his theory. The irony I find in the whole story of Galileo is that HE WAS RIGHT. It goes to show that he was way ahead of his time and should give all of us pause when new discoveries and theories are proposed even today. We need to have open and inquisitive minds for the truth like Galileo, not narrow minded stereotypical viewpoints that close down possibilities. Many new discoveries are occurring everyday in our scientifically based community. I don’t fear the new discoveries, such as cloning, I just fear the way in which man uses his knowledge. This is not any different today as it was from the olden days. If man maintains a moral code with his discoveries than these new discoveries could possibly really benefit mankind. Before Galileo‘s discovery people thought that the Earth was inside a sphere and the stars were holes to let the heavens in. After Galileo’s time scientists started to build bigger and better telescopes. The bigger it is the more universes you can see. Galileo’s use of the telescope is a representation of the principle of growth for mankind being approached in a constructive manner.
Capter 11 Connection Task The Medici Family
The Medici family lived in Florence, Italy in the 14 century. They were a wealthy family that gained power through the Medici Bank. They developed the double entry bookkeeping system that kept records that tracked credit and debts. Giovanni Medici was the first to enter the banking system until his death. His son Cosimo took over for him in 1434. The most important accomplishments of this family were through the sponsorship of the arts. The Medici family wanted to finish the dome of the cathedral in Florence to gain more political power. They hired Fillippo Brunelleschi to fulfill this task. This type of architecture had never been attempted before and the people of Florence thought that it would fail. But the dome was finished and the Medici family became to be recognized as the most powerful family in Florence, Italy. The Pantheon, built in ancient Rome, is the largest dome built in the world with non- reinforced concrete. The pantheon served as a model for western architecture. Many buildings were inspired by this design like the US capital in Washington, DC. The original capital building in D.C. was revised to the present day magnificent dome. The capital in Washington, DC became an inspiration for some of the 50 states in America. I have toured the Capital and of course find it very inspiring and it sends a clear message of power and prestige. Obviously other countries view this building as being the center of our government especially considering that it was speculated as a potential target on 9/11. In the summer of 2009 I was a junior in high school and was selected to attend a Girl Scout trip called Pathways to Politics. During the trip we went to Trenton, New Jersey to the capital building which has a beautiful dome. We had a private tour and pretended to be senators in our own senate hearing. During this day I came to the realization that domes are an important symbol of the United State’s government. Upon further research I discovered that 41 out of the 50 states have domes on their capitol buildings. New York State does not have a dome and I find the building’s design as a disappointment. When I travel to Washington for a visit my family goes down route15 through Harrisburg, Pa. This city has a very beautiful capital building sitting along the river’s edge. This city is not only the capital for Pennsylvania but also has a long standing history of being the center of power dating back to William Penn. In my opinion the states that do not have capital buildings with domes seem to send a message of a lack of political power or importance. They appear to be non-inspiring and just plain boring. The state capital buildings that lack the dome would require for someone to tell me which building is their seat of government. Otherwise I would not recognize it as an important government building. So I think that the Medici family’s ideal of how to communicate the whole concept of strength, power and prestige by the use of architecture was right on the mark. This message of power by use of a unique dome has gone down through history as being significant and demands attention long after its creators have been gone for generations.
Social Pych
Social psychology is the study of how people’s thoughts, feelings and behaviors are influenced by actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. Social psychology is the only method that uses the scientific method. People form hypothesizes and perform experiments to test the hypothesis. They would study how people are influenced by their social environment and they were experimental based. They would focus on the process that makes people susceptible to social influence. Scientists study group behavior, leadership, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression and prejudice. It is based on studying situational variables that affect social behavior. Francis Bacon in the early 1600’s was the founder of the empirical method. It did not begin to really develop until around the 1940’s the WWII period. Social psychology relies on anecdotal observations and subjective interpretation, using the scientific method and empirical study of the social phenomena. A famous person who utilized social psychological methods was Aristotle. He was famous for his firm based observations of society. Social perceptions and social interactions is the key to understanding social behavior.
Folk wisdom is a non-scientific observation that is handed down from generation to generation. It is folklore that involves stories, songs, rhymes, riddles, music, dance, oral history and proverbs. Through this informal method of communicating social observations is a way that people can, over the years, express social behavior, outcomes or expectations. An example of such a folk wisdom would be the tortoise and the hare. The outcome of the entertaining story is that haste makes waste and if you just keep plugging along you will win in the end.
Philosophy is the study of fundamentals of reason, existence, values, knowledge, mind and language. Philosophy investigates the nature causes, principles of reality, knowledge, and values using logical reasoning. There are five branches of philosophy. They are metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, politics and esthetics. Metaphysics is the study of existence. Metaphysics is the foundation of philosophy without it the world wouldn’t know the interpretation of the world around us and how to deal with reality. Every action has a cause and an effect. Epistemology is the study of knowledge. This studies how people think. Epistemology helps to determine the truth from false. Ethics is the study of action. It studies right from wrong. It’s the method of how people categorize values and how to pursue them. It helps decide the course of action, work toward goals and lead to success. Politics is the study of force. Politics shows how a society must be set up and how the people must behave within the society. A society can’t survive if it’s ineffective. Esthetics is the study of art. It studies the purpose of art and how it should be evaluated. Philosophy is considered to be an academic principle that is taught at universities, but is not recognized in curriculums of medicine, law or theology. A famous person who was a philosopher was Plato. His observations and quotes describe social behaviors. A view in philosophy is what separates us from animals is due to our intellectual means and moral self-discipline.
Social psychology, folk wisdom and philosophy have many over lapping principles of society and the variables that result in some type of a human response. However, social psychology is the only discipline of the three that applies scientific methods in the assessment of these observations.
Folk wisdom is a non-scientific observation that is handed down from generation to generation. It is folklore that involves stories, songs, rhymes, riddles, music, dance, oral history and proverbs. Through this informal method of communicating social observations is a way that people can, over the years, express social behavior, outcomes or expectations. An example of such a folk wisdom would be the tortoise and the hare. The outcome of the entertaining story is that haste makes waste and if you just keep plugging along you will win in the end.
Philosophy is the study of fundamentals of reason, existence, values, knowledge, mind and language. Philosophy investigates the nature causes, principles of reality, knowledge, and values using logical reasoning. There are five branches of philosophy. They are metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, politics and esthetics. Metaphysics is the study of existence. Metaphysics is the foundation of philosophy without it the world wouldn’t know the interpretation of the world around us and how to deal with reality. Every action has a cause and an effect. Epistemology is the study of knowledge. This studies how people think. Epistemology helps to determine the truth from false. Ethics is the study of action. It studies right from wrong. It’s the method of how people categorize values and how to pursue them. It helps decide the course of action, work toward goals and lead to success. Politics is the study of force. Politics shows how a society must be set up and how the people must behave within the society. A society can’t survive if it’s ineffective. Esthetics is the study of art. It studies the purpose of art and how it should be evaluated. Philosophy is considered to be an academic principle that is taught at universities, but is not recognized in curriculums of medicine, law or theology. A famous person who was a philosopher was Plato. His observations and quotes describe social behaviors. A view in philosophy is what separates us from animals is due to our intellectual means and moral self-discipline.
Social psychology, folk wisdom and philosophy have many over lapping principles of society and the variables that result in some type of a human response. However, social psychology is the only discipline of the three that applies scientific methods in the assessment of these observations.
Monday, January 30, 2012
Caregivers of Old People
Caregivers are people who take care of elderly people. Popular belief is that many elderly are in nursing homes. Actually only about 5% of the elderly population is actually in a nursing home. Almost 90% of elderly people are taken care of by their family members. Caregivers manage medications, talk to doctors, help bathe and dress them, and take care of bills, chores, and meals. Most patients become increasingly helpless. This causes a great toll on the caregiver because of watching the physical decline of their loved one. This can become overwhelming without support. Caregivers can have caregiver burnout. Caregiver burnout includes feeling depressed, constant fatigue, decreased interest in work and work production, withdrawal from social contact, increased use of drinking, feeling of helplessness and change of eating patterns. There are several treatment programs for caregivers. In 1965 the National Caregiver Support Program was created. This program authorizes funds for nutrition services, caregiver support, caregiver training, prevention strategies, counseling, group support, respite services, disease prevention and health promotion activities.
Caregivers receive education tailored to the patient and their appropriate treatment needs. Psychotherapy can help reduce stress, anxiety and depression. Caregivers can experience depression. Psychotherapy helps enhance morale, self esteem, coping and the sense of control for the caregiver. In psychotherapy caregivers go through cognitive reframing. Cognitive reframing is the change of negative assumptions and thoughts to promote adaptive behavior. People who go through cognitive reframing are shown to have less stress and less likely to have depression. Individual counseling can be helpful as well by being designed to help support, receive education, problem solving and coping skills.
Support groups are meetings that consist of people going through similar situations. The groups are there to provide caregivers with a safe place to share emotions and experiences, seek and give advice, and exchange information. Support groups provide necessary social contact and recreation to meet family needs. They provide information about work programs and activities for elderly people.
Caregivers receive education tailored to the patient and their appropriate treatment needs. Psychotherapy can help reduce stress, anxiety and depression. Caregivers can experience depression. Psychotherapy helps enhance morale, self esteem, coping and the sense of control for the caregiver. In psychotherapy caregivers go through cognitive reframing. Cognitive reframing is the change of negative assumptions and thoughts to promote adaptive behavior. People who go through cognitive reframing are shown to have less stress and less likely to have depression. Individual counseling can be helpful as well by being designed to help support, receive education, problem solving and coping skills.
Support groups are meetings that consist of people going through similar situations. The groups are there to provide caregivers with a safe place to share emotions and experiences, seek and give advice, and exchange information. Support groups provide necessary social contact and recreation to meet family needs. They provide information about work programs and activities for elderly people.
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