Breasts

Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream to be transported to various organs and tissues throughout the body. Hormones are the chemicals that travel through the blood stream. These hormones can regulate body functions such as temperature, thyroid activity, growth during childhood, urine production; testosterone, estrogen and progesterone just to name a few.  Two endocrine glands that work together are the hypothalamus gland and the pituitary gland in the stimulation of hormones. The pituitary gland secretes eight different hormones.  These hormones affect many different parts of the body for example the mammary tissue. 

Mammary tissues, also known as breasts, are located in the male and female body. The pituitary gland plays a very big role in the changes in function, particularly in females, when secondary sexual characteristics occur. These hormones regulate the body's growth, metabolism, sexual development and function. Oxytocin is a hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary that has specific target cells.  The target cells for oxytocin are located in the female uterus and breasts.  A high level of oxytocin is secreted during childbirth to aid in uterine contractions and milk production. A transfer of information from one set of cells to another is coordinated. There are 15 to 20 lobes that contain mammary glands. Oxytocin circulates by a neuroendocrine reflex that causes contraction of the smooth muscles that ejects milk. The milk produced by a lactating female is produced within the mammary alveoli. Breast milk is secreted into a network of mammary ducts which receive the milk from the mammary alveoli. Near the nipple the duct expands to allow the flow of milk. The milk leaves the body from the tip of the nipple. The circular area around the nipple that contrasts in color is the areola. These glands increase secrete of fluids during lactation.  Although males do not bear children or breast feed, their bodies have oxytocin hormone as well.  The presence of the hormone in the male contributes to their sexual arousal and satisfaction.

http://www.medicalook.com/human_anatomy/organs/Mammary_glands.html 2012

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/imagepages/1093.htm

Updated by: Shehzad Topiwala, MD, Chief Consultant Endocrinologist, Premier Medical Associates, The Villages, FL. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M. Health Solutions, Ebix, Inc.

 http://www.neurosurgery.pitt.edu/minc/skullbase/pituitary/index.html

2001-12 Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pittsburgh.]

Unfaithful

The second counseling session I think went ok, but it was harder this time even though I maintained good soler skills. I showed interest in what my client was saying while maintaining fantastic eye contact without appearing too intense and I was somewhat relaxed. In the beginning of the session I greeted the client and attempted to make him feel welcome. I felt this would make me less threatening to him and show to him that I am a person with interests. I then asked very casually “what would you like to talk about?” This was an attempt to end chit chat, get down to the business at hand and give control of the conversation to him.

I used direct leading by saying “what do you want to talk about today?” I asked closed ended questions to gather information such as “are you in college and do you have a family?” I used indirect leading by asking “tell me more about the relationship before you found out about the affair?” During the session I kept thinking how I can relate to the client’s situation. I used an empathetic voice toned statement when I said “you feel scared because he threatened you.”  I used open ended questions “do you think you could survive on your own without your husband”? I am not really sure and I did take accountability for this by stating that I was not sure and that I did not have the answer to everything. I have never experienced anything in my personal life like this situation so I felt that I had no bias, but on the other hand was not really prepared for the situation because I had never given such an issue any thought.  I feel that this message of no bias to his situation was indicated when I showed no facial expression that would convey negativism. I did not try to out talk or over talk my client and gave him sufficient time to express himself.  In the interview I noted that by doing this technique he sometimes would hesitate and then go on and elaborate without any further encouragement. I do know there were a couple of times during the session that I hesitated too long with a period of silence that could cause feelings of awkwardness.  I realize that timing and keeping pace in the session is important. 

 I tried to be empathetic toward the client but I found it difficult because I have never been married nor had a partner that was unfaithful. I have had some experience through my sister who was married for seven years and found out that her husband was cheating.  She made the decision to file for divorce and now is very happy with a new partner. Divorce in my family is acceptable, if necessary, but for my client and her family, divorce is not to be considered. I can somewhat relate to this client’s issues because of my sister’s experience, but otherwise I can only offer support and empathy because I wasn’t sure what was the true root of the problem.

                              The presenting problem was my client being cheated on by her husband of nine years. The working problem is that she was scared, threatened and she wanted out of the relationship, but didn’t want to disappoint her family by getting a divorce.  I used minimal encouragers by nodding my head and saying ok to encourage her to continue and I summarized the main themes.   My plan of action was to find out what the problem was and help the client sort out the issues.  I had difficulty initiating the flow of the session a few times and I was aware that my pauses were too long while I searched for what action to take next. I used silence hoping that the pause would probe the client to go further into the discussion.

                  I provided no feedback and was unable to indicate how the client was progressing because I had met the client for the first time and felt that I did not know her well enough.  I felt the client’s behavior did not affect me because I stayed neutral with the issues presented and I was able to accept her viewpoints. I did not provide immediacy which is a type of feedback that refers to the present, outside of the session, that is not directly related to the session. I did not explore with the client outside situations that surround the current issue. I felt the session maintained momentum and had direction, there was no physical distance between myself and the client, trust was not an issue, there was no power struggle and I felt no sexual tension. I did not offer information or confront the client because it was our first meeting and the details she shared seemed consistent.   Because she did not show inconsistencies during the session I did not probe deeper into the issues that she presented, but would plan to do so in a future session.

                 I did not set any goals with my client. I never really got under the surface to determine the reason for the problem. She led me to believe that the marriage was great and there were no other issues except her husband cheating with multiple women. I never determined the cause for the infinity and it was obvious that she wanted to leave the relationship, but felt constraints due to her family values and children. I was frustrated as a counselor because I did not know how to help her figure out what to do because I did not know.  I hope that talking it through with me helped her organize some of her own thoughts.

            I feel more comfortable doing the counseling sessions but I really do not like to role play. I feel I do a better job being the counselor than when I am being the client. Even though I was the counselor during this role play I found this session was difficult for me. I really felt that I did not know what to ask or how to go deeper into the issues. I wanted to give her advice but I should not offer my opinion and I found it hard to hold back. I was confused about what to say because she had conflicting values. I felt a little more comfortable with the role play, but I feel that I have not demonstrated improvement in my techniques and by watching this session I realize how much improvement I need. I have gained a lot of skills from both video tapes. I have learned about myself and what I am good at.

Outdoor Recreation Club
 Rock Climbing Extravaganza

                                                      by: Lynnette Lockwood



The weekend of September 21st 2012 the outdoor recreation club went on a trip to Portersville, Pennsylvania for rock climbing. After arriving at the campsite base camp was set up and then tents to spend the night. The next morning the campers woke up to the smell of bacon, pancakes, and sausage. After breakfast the campers took a beautiful hike in the McConnell’s Mill State Park and some of the campers went kayaking. This park is located in the Slippery Rock Area and is 49 miles long and full of slippery rocks. It is believed that an Indian trail was formed by the creek at a shelf of sandstone near a natural oil seep, which made the rock exceptionally slippery. Because of this natural occurrence a creek, a town, a university, a rock formation and many local businesses were named after the rock. In the late 1800s, oil wells briefly flourished in the valley, but the oil was swiftly invaded by groundwater and the wells were abandoned. The oil wells drained the oil seep and the Slippery Rock is no longer covered in oil. The Slippery Rock Gorge Natural Area was made a national landmark in 1974 and became a state park in 1998. The steep-sided gorge contains numerous rocky outcrops, boulders, old growth forest, waterfalls and rare plants. After the hike the campers were led to another area of the park where they went repealing which is a form of rock climbing only backwards. There was a small repeal that was about 40 ft. and the large repeal that was about 100 ft.

The next day the campers packed up everything and went to Ellicottville for the high adventure course. The adventure course challenged all the campers not only physically but emotionally as well. A great educational and fun time was had by all.

Rod Steater

Rod Streater Raiders vs. Chargers game


By: Lynnette Lockwood

Monday, September 10th 2012 Alfred State College had a fun night in the Orvis Auditorium. The Raiders vs. the Chargers football game played for the students to enjoy. Dennis Allen who is 39 years old and the Raiders head coach made his debut Monday. Wide receiver Rod Streater became the first rookie receiver for the Oakland Raiders. Rod is a proud Alfred State graduate. He accomplished four passes in 27 yards, including a 2-yard touchdown reception and a two-point conversion catch late in the fourth quarter. The Raiders recorded three plays of 20 yards or longer against the Chargers on Monday night.

Levels of organization

Discuss human biological levels of organization from atom to organism.  Discuss each level in detail and describe how each contributes to homeostasis by giving specific examples.

          Biology is a life study that defines the difference between living versus nonliving organisms.  The world of living matter consists of levels of organization.  Each level is important in the function of human beings.  The levels are atom/molecule, cell, tissue, organ, organ systems and organism (Miller & Levine 13).

           All living organisms begin with an atom defined as a unit of matter.  To be considered matter it must contain the 4 characteristics of weight, volume, mass and density. An atom is microscopic in size, consisting of protons that have positive charges and neutrons with no charge which form the nucleus or center of the atom.  Outside the atom circulate a variety of electrons which help define the abilities of that atom.  Each atom, based on its structure, makes up different elements of matter.  A single atom or element can combine with other atoms to form a molecule.  Humans are made up of billions of atoms (Miller and Levine 28).  

         Even though each element begins in a pure state cooperative binding must occur for the building of a new structured matter.   Any disruption in the binding process or introduction of other elements, or an unstable environment can change the outcome.  For instance there is a presence of an atom of pure oxygen (an element required to be present for all living organisms that are aerobic in nature) in the environment.  Inject the pure element of carbon and the atoms will bind forming a strong triple co-valent bond and create a new compound called carbon monoxide, a totally different form of matter (Miller and Levine 31).  Carbon monoxide biologically can be the by-product of hemoglobin breakdown within the human body, but if found in large quantities can be a dangerous, toxic gas (Miller and Levine 800).  Take the same two atoms of carbon and oxygen and add one more oxygen atom to the compound and a new compound is formed called carbon dioxide.  Large quantities of carbon dioxide can drastically affect the homeostasis within a living body.   When the organism is balancing carbon dioxide correctly it is a natural by-product of respiration (Miller and Levine 799). 

         Some molecules are more stable than others but can join together to eventually form a single cell. All living organisms consist of the basic unit of life known as a cell. Cells are complete in nature but some living things remain in a unicellular state all of their life cycle while other organisms have more and more cells that become when combined as complex as the human body. The human body is the most complex form of life (Miller and Levine 160).

           Living organisms have several characteristics that make them common in nature and they must have these to be considered living.  These characteristics and functions are beginning with a basic unit cell, universal genetic code (heredity) ability, obtaining and using materials and energy, able to grow, develop and reproduce, respond to their environment, maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis), and change overtime (evolution). Cells are generated from other pre-existing cell matter so the ability of reproduction is essential (Miller and Levine 160).    

         When considering the living species of human cells scientists classify these cells as eukaryotes.  To be able to have this classification the cell must have the three basic structures present; a plasma membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm. These structures contained within a single cell maintain its existence and survival.  The plasma membrane is the outside wall of the cell, the nucleus contains the genetic matter and communication, and the cytoplasm contains other structures that help the cell change food into energy.  The human cell works much like a sport team and each part has their own vital function, must communicate within, must send and contain receptors to receive messages through the effective use of chemicals. There are several stages that a cell goes through to multiple.  Each phase is critical, but DNA damage during division is the reason the cell cycle and cell death will occur because a homeostatic state has not been maintained to assure survival (Mader 164).

         When the cell does complete its phases and survives risk continues.  For example within the human body viruses can invade the body that contain proteins surrounding the cell wall that has the ability to bind to the protein receptors of the human cell allowing entry through the human cell wall.  In the HIV retroviruses the virus robs the human cell of its own genetic information by copying RNA to DNA and then replicates causing the virus to spread into the cells that specifically fight infection.  When this occurs homeostasis is disrupted within the human body and can lead to the drastic life threatening HIV (Miller and Levine 484). 

         The grouping together of cells forms human tissue and works in harmony to maintain homeostasis (Mader 607).  There are 4 primary tissue types in the human body; epithelial, connective, muscle and nerve (Mader 598).  Epithelial tissue lines organs and provides protection from abrasion and dehydration (Carpi).  Muscle tissue accomplishes hematopoietic tissue that manufactures blood cells helping the body maintain homeostasis with assistance in blood production.  Nerve tissue transmits impulses and provides physical support for the neural tissue, controls tissue fluids around the neurons, and helps defend the neurons from invading organisms (Carpi).

          Organs are the next level of organization in the body.  An organ is a structure that contains at least two different types of tissue working together for a common purpose (Carpi). There are many organs that perform as a system such as the heart, liver, kidneys, gastrointestinal, respiratory and even the skin, with the skin being the largest (Carpi).  There are three layers of the skin; the epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous.  The epidermis is the outermost layer of skin and works as a barrier between the outside environment and the inside of the body.  The dermis contains blood vessels that nourish skin cells and contains nerve tissue that provides blood supply, temperature, and sensations (Carpi).  The subcutaneous layer contains mostly connective and adipose tissue.  Adipose tissue known as fat helps cushion the skin and provides protection from the cold (Carpi).  Homeostasis for the body is maintained by protection, nerve impulses and circulation.  Homeostasis is disrupted anytime there is a break in the skin allowing potential for viral or bacterial invasion and body infection.

            Each organ and organ system must work together to maintain homeostasis.  The perfect balance of homeostasis does not permit the body to under work or overwork and each organ facilitates each other (Beers).  The nervous system is very complex and has the ability for the human body to survive, but it is dependent upon the ability to monitor internal and external conditions and making appropriate changes as needed.  A loss of homeostasis becomes evident in nervous system diseases such as Lou Gehrig Disease (Beers).  The heart and circulatory system move materials to and from body tissue very efficiently and loss of homeostasis occurs with coronary artery disease and disruption of blood supply (Beers). The digestive system takes in and digests food, and provides nutrient molecules that enter the blood and replace the nutrients that are being used by the body with the inability to eat causes death in the organism (Beers).  The respiratory system adds oxygen and removes carbon dioxide from the body and loss of homeostasis occurs anytime when ph imbalance occurs (Miller & Levine 799).  The liver and kidneys work together to maintain homeostasis by regulating blood glucose levels.  When the glucose enters the blood stream it is filtered out by the liver and stored as glycogen and then broken down at a later time as needed  by the secretion of insulin from the pancreas (Miller & Levine 39). The kidneys regulate the balance of water in the blood maintaining blood volume and blood pressure while excreting waste, salts and substances that regulate the PH of the blood to maintain homeostasis (Mader 695).

        Homeostasis is controlled somewhat by body hormones but it is ultimately controlled by the nervous system with the assistance from the brain by using negative feedback (Mader 608).    Negative feedback is a mechanism that maintains homeostasis and is regulated by a sensor and control center (Mader 608). The sensor detects imbalance in the internal body and the control center brings about change and when homeostasis has been restored the organ involved stops its’ action (Mader 608). Negative feedback works well for example with regulation of blood glucose and body temperature.

         Homeostasis is controlled as well with a positive feedback system.  This system is useful to maintain homeostasis in situations such as childbirth, blood clotting, and gastro intestinal breakdown of protein (Mader 609). A situation such as childbirth is a temporary change in the body’s environment.  Positive feedback is stimulated by the nerves, the brain, and pituitary gland to assist in the delivery process and eventual return to a pre-pregnant homeostatic state.

       The body can tolerate slight fluctuations within certain limits, but when homeostasis is outside the limits organ systems begin to work to re-regulate the situation.  Any lack of response by organs in a timely manner can cause long lasting effects on the body as a whole.  For example, when nutrients enter the body and glucose enters the blood stream, if the stimulation of insulin in the correct amounts does not occur it can give rise to a long lasting disease such as diabetes mellitus that can have very harmful effects on the body.  This disease is an example of the body’s struggle with maintaining homeostasis that will eventually affects every body system.
         “If life is to continue, temperature, moisture level, acidity and other physiological factors must remain within the tolerance range of the organism” (Mader 4). The miracle of survival of the organism is possible when homeostasis is maintained by body systems working together to routinely monitor internal conditions and make indicated adjustments without the conscious awareness of the organism.

Immune

The immune system maintains homeostasis by responding to foreign microbes that enter the body and eliminate them. Several regulatory mechanisms function to terminate responses to foreign antigens, returning the immune system to a basal state after the antigen has been cleared, and to maintain unresponsiveness, or tolerance, to self-antigens. In this way there is a constant harmony maintained between the body tissues, its immediate immune response and the white blood corpuscles (WBCs) in protecting our body from invasion by external bacteria and viruses that are causing illness and thus attempting to reestablish homeostasis.

There are many ways to strengthen an immune system through eating lean proteins, fruit and vegetables, exercise, regulating vitamin D, stress management, using certain cooking oils, limit alcohol intake and safe health practices.

You can maintain a healthy immune system by eating a well balanced diet. Cutting most of the junk foods from your diet and eat moderate portions from all major food groups at least 3 or 4 times per day is an excellent start. A diet high in protein is beneficial because lean protein red meats actually contain minerals (zinc) for production of wbcs to add in fighting infections.

Including adequate servings of fruit and vegetables is desirable by boosting vitamin C, A and E intake. Approximately 5 cups of fruits and vegetables a day is recommended. Supplementing with multivitamins or mineral supplements can be helpful under the supervision of a physician.

Exercising regularly can do a number of things for the immune system including: excreting infectious organisms from the body through urine and sweat, slows down the release of the stress hormone cortisol and increases blood flow to warn the body of threats to the immune system.

Research indicates that monitoring vitamin D levels can be beneficial. Higher levels of vitamin D boost the immune system and research indicates that lower levels of vitamin D increases the risk for the common cold and seasonal flu. Vitamin D supplements and sun exposure can be helpful.

Stress management is a very important way to enhance the immune system by getting adequate rest, doing light exercise, yoga and/or meditation, playing music or playing with a pet. Stress can affect the wbc counts making the potential for disease more likely. Adequate sleep is important. Inadequate rest can weaken the immune system because the body rebuilds during sleep.

Cooking foods with healthier oils is helpful. It is recommended that canola and olive oil are the healthiest type of oils to use and therefore boosts the immune response. Caution with the quantity of oils is always recommended to reach a good balance.

Limiting alcohol is another way to boost the immune system. Excessive alcohol intake is toxic to the immune system cells and can weaken the body’s ability to fight infections.

Practice safe sex. Sexually transmitted viral infections such as HIV, hepatitis and herpes simplex can dramatically lower the body’s ability to fight off infections because these diseases attack the cells that maintain homeostasis in immunity and use of white blood cells. Practicing safe sex or abstinence can help reduce your chances of contracting these diseases.

Cardiac Improvement

There are four major areas that help maintain and strengthen the cardiovascular system which include exercise, health diet, no smoking and avoidance of excessive alcohol.  There are a variety of exercise regimes that can be done such as duration, intensity and interval exercise.  The main principle behind an exercise causes the muscle in the body to need more oxygen.  In response to the exercise the heart responses by increasing its rate, increasing blood pressure and redirecting blood to maximize the amount of oxygen that circulates.  A minimum of 30 minutes per day is generally recommended.

Eating a health, well balanced diet is important.  It should include low fat, low salt and high fiber.  These types of foods help control weight, cholesterol levels, muscles strength and provide vitamins and minerals. 

No smoking is a definite necessity.  Smoking greatly harms the cardiovascular system by forming blood clots, causing stroke, increasing blood pressure and therefore decreases the ability to exercise properly. Smoking increases the risk for heart attack by 2 times.

Avoiding excessive alcohol also strengthens the cardiovascular system.  Excessive use of alcohol can cause cardiomyopathy (disease of the heart muscle), coronary disease, stroke and hypertension.  It is recognized that 5 ounces of red wine for women and 2 5 ounces of red wine for men be helpful for the cardiac system.

Managing other health issues such as diabetes can slow the destructive process to the cardiovascular system.  Avoidance of stress or good stress management helps as well.