Groups History

1) Johannes Gutenberg:
Johannes Gutenberg was an inventor, blacksmith, goldsmith, stonecutter, printer and publisher. He is most famous for the invention of the movable printing press. Before the printing press was invented; manuscripts, documents and books had to be written out by hand. Consequently there were poorly kept records. This was a very time consuming and tedious task. For example stories and songs were passed from generation to generation verbally and became changed over time. The printing press could be used and reused. The individual letters were easily movable and they were brought together to make a page. Since letters could be arranged into any format, an infinite variety of texts could be printed with limited man power and considerably improved speed. Without the invention of the movable type printing press the world would not be the same today. Gutenberg’s press was a slow and tedious process but made a major impact on the future production of the written word.

2) The Medici:
The Medici family lived in Florence, Italy during the 14 century. They were a wealthy family that gained power through the Medici Bank. They developed the double entry bookkeeping system that kept records that tracked credit and debts. The most important accomplishments of this family were through the sponsorship of the arts. The Medici family wanted to finish the dome of the cathedral in Florence to enhance art and gain more political power. This type of architecture had never been attempted before and the people of Florence thought that it would fail. The dome was successfully finished and the Medici family became recognized as the most powerful family in Florence, Italy. The Medici dome served as a model for western architecture. Many buildings were inspired by this design like the US capital in Washington, DC. The capital in Washington, DC became an inspiration for some of the 50 states in America. Domes are an important symbol of the United State’s government. The Medici family’s ideal of how to communicate the whole concept of strength, power and prestige by the use of architecture was obviously historically influencial. This message of power by use of a unique dome has gone down through history as being significant and demands attention for generations long after its creators have been gone.

3) Christopher Columbus:
Historically Europeans had used the route known as the Silk Road a passage between China and India. The land route to Asia became very dangerous and difficult to travel because there were pirates and bandits. Consequently Portuguese explorers and King John the II sought to reach Asia by going around Africa in 1488. India was the source of precious spices and other rare goods, but reaching it by sailing east was difficult, because Africa blocked the way. During this time Christopher Columbus was an explorer, colonizer and a navigator and he disputed the myth that the world was flat and he felt that he could reach India by sailing west. Columbus convinced Queen Isabella that he could find a better way to reach Asia. Queen Elizabeth granted him permission to go provided him with money and three sailing ships. He was appointed admiral of the seas by the queen and promised he would receive some of the profit if he agreed to bring back valuable goods for Spain. On August 3rd 1492 he made his first voyage across the sea reaching the Bahamas and he thought that he was in Asia. Columbus accomplished two more voyages which included the discovery of America. The Vikings had discovered America long before Columbus but he is important because his explorations made Europeans more aware of the new world and helped to encourage more explorations of North and South America. He enlarged the known world by inspiring other explorers to discover additional parts the world.

4) Napoleon Bonaparte:
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military leader who rose to power during the French Revolution. He rose to prominence under the French First Republic. His legal reform, the Napoleonic Code was a major influence on civil law jurisdictions worldwide. The Napoleonic Code refused privilege based on birth rank, allowed freedom of religion, and specified government jobs were to be held by the most qualified people. This code remains a basis of European Continental law to this day. He is most remembered for his role in the wars that was led against France by a series of coalitions called the Napoleonic Wars. In 1799, he staged a coup and elected himself as the first consul and then the French Senate proclaimed him emperor. He established term hegemony which is authority or control or dominating influence by one person or group especially by a political group over a society. He consolidated the imperial monarchy of the Regime. Napoleon’s reputation has survived generations. He is generally regarded as one of the greatest military commanders of all time and his campaigns are studied at military academies throughout much of the world even today.

5) The Renaissance:
The Renaissance was a movement during the 14th and 17th centuries. Renaissance means rebirth in knowledge. Science and the arts were becoming more significant. It began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe. As a cultural movement, it encompassed Latin and vernacular literatures, the development of linear perspective and other techniques such as more natural reality in paintings. In politics the Renaissance contributed the development of the conventions of diplomacy. In science there was an increased reliance on observation. This period is best known for artistic development. Secular music is non-religious music and it was becoming more popular during this time with a rise in instrumental music and dance music. The printing press was invented during this time and people considered the printing press to be the most important contribution to civilization in the last one thousand years. The printing press allowed music to be printed quickly. Before the Renaissance the music had to be copied by hand. The Renaissance was important because it awakened the world from a very long sleep. The Middle Ages had ruined people's dreams and forced them into an meaningless pattern of life. The Renaissance period brought progression, change, and beauty. The Renaissance was an important turning point in Western thinking and cultural tradition. All of these changes centered on the idea of Humanism in which, people became less "God Centered" and more "Human-centered". The scientific advancements and the music and art created are still enjoyed today.

1) Causes of WWI:
World War I was started by the assassination of Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia of Austria in 1914 and than the war continued until 1918. This war was between the allied powers France, England, Russia and the United States of America and the central powers of Germany, Austria-Hungry and Turkey. The German government had sided with Austria and had agreed that they would support Austria. The political leadership in Germany didn’t really desire to be involved in the war but was pulled in by their pre-war alliance to Austria but other factors that influenced Germany’ participation were nationalism, imperialist competition, and militarism.
Nationalism was a product of unified Germany that occurred around 1871. Under Otto Von Bismark’s leadership he accomplished major architect building of a nation by the creation of a united Germany. His accomplishments were a mammoth success in land growth. This was a period in Germany’s history where a dramatic nation building was accomplished by unifying multiple territories and states using military force. Germany had been transformed into a major continental power. Consequently people of various political beliefs agreed that national unity was the ultimate goal and Germany was high on success and felt invincible.
On the home front the German citizens supported and glorified war and consequently welcomed war and cheered about it under the premise of nationalism. The feelings for the need to expand national unity were strong and people thought that war would make them even greater and all agreed that Germany could not forfeit any land. To date Germany had never lost a major conflict and many of the populous had been raised with strong feelings of nationalism. The German government had spread propaganda that the war would not last very long. The German people did not recognize the inability of their emperor Kaiser William to lead with military savvy as past leaders had done.
The government, with the support of the German people’s encouragement, recruited young, under educated boys from schools and universities. They told the boys that it was their duty to serve for their country and that if they accepted and conscripted, the war would be a very beautiful and glorious opportunity for them and if they died for their country they would be considered national heroes. These young men were usually between the ages of 18 and 19 and had no idea what war was all about. They joined the German army quickly because they were naïve, excited, and sought adventure. Germany’s participation in WWI was the precursor for WWII. Historically Germany has a lingering reputation of the desire to rule others and has become famous for outstanding war atrocities.

2) Lenin:
Vladimir Lenin was born a Russian in 1870 and lived until 1924. He is well known as a Marxist revolutionary and he became a strong communist leader in Russia. Europe was in the chaos of WWI and Russia was on the brink of national chaos. Its people were demanding the end of war, land reform and the end of shortages of goods. Lenin had been exiled from Russia for his radical views. The Tsar of Russia, Nicholas Romanov II was overthrown by Lenin, the leader of the political party known as the Bolshevik’s in 1917. By initiating the Bolshevik Revolution Lenin seized control of the government. He created a communist country that is called the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic which was later renamed the U.S.S.R. Since his death in 1924 he has been idolized by the Russian people as a genius, leader and teacher of people of the world. Historically Lenin is arguably the most significant person in the world of Russian politics.

3) The League of Nations:
The League of Nations was the first international organization, established in 1919, whose goal was to maintain world peace. The League of Nations headquarters was in Geneva. The League of Nations was replaced by the United Nations in 1945. The United Nations headquarters is in NYC and it sits on international land. The United Nations helps to prevent wars, disarmament, helps to settle disputes between countries, make treaties, have just treatment of native people, help to control human and drug trafficking, arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe.
One of the great achievements of the United Nations is the creation of a comprehensive body of human rights law. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone is born free and equal, everyone has the right to life, liberty, and the security of a person, that no one should be in slavery, that slavery is prohibited and no one should be subject to torture, or cruelty. Everyone has the right to recognition as a person; no one should be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. This law says that everyone is entitled to a fair public hearing; and in a penal offence they have the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law attacks, the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state, the right to nationality, the right to seek and to enjoy life, and everyone has the right to marry and start a family. Everyone has the right to own property, the right to freedom of thought, the right to freedom and expression, the right to a peaceful assembly, the right to participate in government, the right to social security, the right to work, the right to have rest and leisure, the right for adequate living, the right to education, the right to freely participate in cultural life, and are entitled to the social and international order.
The UN has developed effective mechanisms to protect human rights, benefiting people all over the world. Currently there are 193 countries in the world that have membership in the United Nations working toward understanding and improving communication to decrease world dissention.

4) Containment:
Containment was a United States policy immediately following WWII with the focus to prevent the spread of communism. The policy was first established by George F. Kennan in 1947. This policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to enlarge the communist influence on Eastern Europe. Containment stated that communism needed to be contained or it would spread to neighboring countries. This spread would be very rapid and cause the Domino effect. The Domino effect is that if one country fell to communism, then each surrounding counties would fall as well, like a row of dominoes. During this time President Harry Truman warned of the evils of communism threatened the democratic freedom of its people. The Soviet Union wanted a world modeled on their own country’s society and values. Even though the Soviets claimed they provided all citizens with economic and social rights, the US saw communism as a slave state that control the private life and thoughts of its citizens. The threat violated both the democratic rights and civil liberties of its citizens. Therefore this threat required the continued efforts by the United States to make sure that it did not spread to the homeland and other nations that had not moved politically towards communism. As such, this Policy of Containment stated that the US would try to stop (contain) the spread of Communism by creating strategic alliances or support to help weak countries to resist Soviet advances. Currently many countries of the world continue to be concerned toward the threat of not being able to contain communism.

5) The Paris Peace Conference:
The Paris Peace Conference was the meeting of Allied victors following the end of WWI to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers. It took place in Paris in 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities. They met, discussed various options and developed a series of treaties called the Paris Peace Treaties. These treaties reshaped the map of Europe with new borders and countries, imposed war guilt and had stiff financial penalties. Germany and Russia were not invited to attend because of their aggressions during WWI. For six months Paris was effectively the center of a world government. The results included a peace treaty that declared Germany guilty, weakened its military, and required them to pay all the costs of the wars to the Allied Powers, Great Britain, Russia, France and Belgium. Unsatisfied with these results the United States returned to pre- war isolation, never ratified the Treaty of Versailles, never joined the League of Nations, and signed separate peace treaties with the three countries it had declared war against. Historians state that with the agreed division of property into states they became rivals to each other and were politically and economically weak. The main concerns by all countries involved after the Paris Peace Conference were economically hardships and maintenance of world peace. These issues reached far into the future for all countries concerned